In recent decades, terms such as “meritocracy” and “equality of opportunities” have gained significant political and social traction, while the globe has experienced recurring economic and social crises that widened the gap between the haves and have-nots. Amid this growing inequality, one must question whether true social mobility still exists. Can today’s youth, regardless of their background, genuinely aspire to climb the economic ladder, or are they bound by the socioeconomic status they were born into?
Our recent study represents a significant advance in the understanding of intergenerational mobility in terms of income, education, and occupation in five African countries: Ethiopia, Ghana, Uganda, Malawi, and Nigeria. In the most economically advanced societies, research has explored the transmission of socio-economic status from parents to children for years. However, in other areas, such as Africa, the reality of social mobility is more complex. Despite impressive economic growth in many countries, extreme inequality, underfunded education systems, and the dominance of informal economies act as powerful barriers, preventing many from accessing the opportunities necessary to improve their socioeconomic standing. This has not been given the necessary attention, mostly due to data limitations.
To fill this gap, we use a data imputation technique to create a comprehensive database of socioeconomic variables. Specifically, to impute missing values and to improve the analysis quality, we used different strategies such as mean, median, mode, or more advanced models. With the use of this data imputation methodology, we are the first to create a unique database with complete information on education, occupation, and wages for four of these five African countries. In the case of Uganda, we have achieved a sufficient sample only for the education domain.
Our findings show low levels of social mobility, even in the face of an educational system that produces enables children exceed their parents’ attainments. Once on the labor market, educational mobility does not translate to occupation and income mobility for children. In defiance of the theory of equal opportunities, circumstances beyond individuals’ control, such as family, gender, race, or place of birth, significantly affect their life chances, even as some perform well in the educational system.
While overall social mobility is low, we find some regional differences. Ethiopia stands out as an encouraging case, with many children achieving higher levels of education and income than their parents. However, this progress is not replicated in the occupational sphere. In other words, despite higher earnings, many individuals remain in the same types of jobs as their parents. This could indicate the presence of structural barriers—such as restricted access to quality education or limited professional development opportunities—that hinder upward occupational mobility. Alternatively, it may also reflect improvements in wages within certain sectors, allowing individuals to achieve higher incomes without necessarily transitioning to different occupations.
Yet Ethiopia remains the exception. In Nigeria, Uganda, and Malawi, many children “only” maintain the same level of education as their parents. This situation becomes alarming when considering that close to 80% of parents in these countries have low (in essence, elementary education) or no education at all. This pattern suggests an intergenerational transmission of low levels of education that perpetuates the lack of mobility in these societies. We find similar patterns regarding occupational and income mobility in these countries.
Although our data does not allow us to test why differences emerge between countries, we speculate that better social mobility chances in Ethiopia (compared to Ghana, Malawi, Nigeria, and Uganda) can be attributed to specific programs to improve access to education, resulting in sustained economic growth in recent years.
Social mobility is one of the fundamental pillars for the progress and development of societies. Yet, analyses of mobility in African nations remains largely unexplored (as is the case of occupational or income mobility in these countries). By considering both occupational and income transmission, this analysis offers a more complete view of intergenerational socioeconomic dynamics, allowing us to see the levels of social mobility relative to fathers and mothers separately. In this regard, while education transmission is similar for both parents, occupational and income mobility is higher relative to mothers, suggesting weaker transmission and greater room for upward mobility. These findings provide a basis for formulating more effective policies to address socioeconomic disparities and foster upward mobility in these African communities.
Despite possible educational advances, occupational and income mobility remain stagnant, presenting persistent challenges to social and economic progress. This is also happening in Western economies, although at different levels. The estimated econometric models and their results reflect the availability of family resources and the decisions these families must make in a challenging socioeconomic context. In many cases, economic constraints force children to work instead of attending school, perpetuating a cycle of stagnating social mobility.
Also, the root of this problem goes beyond lack of access to resources; it is intertwined with limited awareness of the benefits of education and immediate economic needs. Overcoming these challenges will require comprehensive strategies that address both the structural barriers and cultural challenges embedded in these societies. Promoting a shift in the perception of education as an engine of progress and dismantling the economic constraints that perpetuate the lack of social mobility.
Authors:
Claudia Suárez-Arbesú is a predoctoral researcher at the University of Oviedo, where she is working on her thesis on social mobility, focusing her research on inequality and development economics.
María Rosalía Vicente is Full Professor of Applied Economics at the University of Oviedo. She works on the analysis of socioeconomic inequalities with major attention to digital divides.
Ana Jesús López is Full Professor of Statistics and Econometrics at the University of Oviedo. She works on the analysis of inequality and poverty and has supervised several doctoral theses in this field.
Read more:
Suárez-Arbesú, C., Vicente, M. R., & López-Menéndez, A. J. (2024). An approach to social mobility in African countries: Is there a transmission of education, occupation, or income from parents to children? Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 90, 100893. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rssm.2024.100893
Image: astrid westvang via Flickr (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)
